ASSIGNMENT

Write a short description of different cropping systems in your country (about 100 words). Try to use at least 10 terms introduced in this lesson. Make use of relative pronouns in constructing your compound sentences. 

Write the description in the comment box below.  

The following questions may help you get started:


Do some farmers in your country grow more than one crop at the same time? If so, where, and what crops do they plant?


If farmers grow fruit and vegetables at the same time, how do they set about this?


If farmers grow two or more crops, but not at the same time, what crops are used and what techniques are employed?


What are the advantages of growing several crops?


___________________________________________

Answer the following questions. Write your anawer in the comment box below.





What is polyculture?
Can you describe some of the important polyculture systems?
Which ones are practised in your country?
Which of these systems do you think are the most difficult for farmers to implement? Why?
Which systems are easier? Why?

English for Agriculture unit 6 POLYCULTURE GRAMMAR

 Relative Pronouns
Look at the following sentences:
Polyculture is an agricultural system.
In this system, two or more useful plants are grown on the same land.
Please note that:

• We don't want to repeat 'agricultural system' and thus we substitute the relative pronoun which to combine the two sentences into one, as shown below:

Polyculture is an agricultural system in which two or more useful plants are grown on the same land.

The relative pronouns and its use:
that (used for things)
which (used for things)
who (used for people)
whom (used for people)
whose (usually used for people - shows possession)
where (used for places)
Note:

• In speaking, 'that ' can be used for people, but not in formal, written English.

Examples:
1. where (used for places)
Look at these sentences:
Polyculture is the dominant farming systems in many areas.
In these areas, the degree of mechanization is low.
Note:

• Because we don't want to repeat 'areas', we substitute the relative pronoun where and combine the two sentences into one sentence with 2 phrases (i.e. a compound sentence).   The sentences could be wriiten as follows:

Polyculture is the dominant farming system in many countries where the degreee of mechanization remains low.
2. that (used for things)
Look at these  sentences:
These are seeds.
I bought them yesterday.
Combining the sentences using the relative pronoun that, you might come up with the following sentence:
These are seeds that I bought them yesterday.
Please note that:

• This is incorrect.  We don't need the pronoun them.
• Using a relative pronoun helps us to avoid repeating a noun phrase, or using a pronoun.   In this case, using the pronoun them.

The correct sentence is
These are the seeds that I bought yesterday.
Please note that:

• We added the before the word seed.
• With these types of sentences we need to use the. 

________________________________________________________

COMPLETE THE FOLLOWING SENTENCES WITHTHE APROPRIATE PRONOUN. (THAT,WHICH,WHO,WHOM)

1. The book              she wrote was a best-seller.   

2. The book              inspired many students was written many years ago

3. The teacher          I was talking about now lives in Canada.--that

4. The teacher             inspired many students was well-known.

5. Ms Tate's publications,              have inspired many, are all on my bookshelves.  

6. The book                    many readers have learnt a lot from was written by that teacher.  

7. The teacher          many students were inspired by taught English literature.

8. The teacher                     every student looked up to retired 10 years ago.

9. The teacher             now lives in Canada was respected by many of her students.

10. The book             was written by her is still talked about.

11. The teacher                everybody respected remains single all her life.

12. The book               she wrote is used as a textbook in many literature courses.

13. The book              many courses use is published in only paperback editions.

14. The book               everybody is talking about does not cost much.

15. The teacher                       every student loved is still writing to her students.

16. Ms Tate,                 was trained in literature, has taught literature all her life.

17. The teacher                to  many students owe their success has taught in many countries.

18. The teaching to                many students owe their technique is captured in this book.

19. Ms Tate's letters,                her students are still inspired by, show how much she still cares for her students.

20. Ms Tate,                  many past students are still writing to, replies to all the letter.

21. Ms Tate's letters,                her students all treasure, contain words of wisdom.

22. Ms Tate,                      to  many of her students are writing, is living happily and peacefully in Canada.

English for Agriculture unit 6 READING: POLYCULTURE

Polyculture

Polyculture is a system in which two or more useful plants are grown on the same land. Variations within the system are multiple cropping, mixed cropping, intercropping, relay planting, interplanting, and interculture.
Multiple cropping is the growing of more than one crop in the same land in one year. For example, buckwheat  may be grown after harvesting peas . Both crops are grown as monoculture crops, but they are planted and harvested within  one year.
Mixed cropping is the growing of two or more crops simultaneously and intermingled , with no row arrangement.
Intercropping is the growing of two or more crops in alternate  rows , for example, maize alternating with soybean.
Relay planting is the practice of interplanting of the maturing  crop with seeds or seedlings of the following crop.
Interplanting is the practice of planting a short-term  annual crop with a long-term annual or biennial  crop. Oats  and alfalfa, for example, are commonly interplanted in the temperate zone.
Interculture is the cultivation of one crop underneath a perennial  crop, such as rice under coconut palm.
Polyculture is the dominant  farming system in many areas of the tropics, where the degree of mechanization and the use of agricultural chemicals remain low.

English for Agriculture Unit 6 POLYCULTURE VOCABULARY

POLYCULTURE

 In this lesson you will study some of the key vocabulary we use when talking about polyculture. You will discuss some of the important issues involved and compare your information and ideas with those of your fellow students. At the end of the lesson you will write a short account of different cropping systems in your country or region using some of the new vocabulary and structures you have studied in this lesson.

Objectives:


After completing this unit you should be able to:

• Define the key words introduced in this lesson and use them appropriately in agricultural writing.
• Use relative pronouns in compound sentences.
• Discuss issues related to polyculture in your country or region using the vocabulary and grammar that you have learned.

This section introduces the important words (key and technical vocabulary) that will be used in the lesson. You should be sure that you understand these terms before you continue to the Reading.










VOCABULARY:  

alternate (adj.) - different
alternatively (adv.) - on the other hand, doing something a different way
alternative (n) - a differant choice
Examples:

1. I don't want to do it this way. Is there another alternative?
2. You can park here on alternate days, i.e. Monday, Wednesday, Friday; or Tuesday, Thursday, Saturday.
3. You can start next week. Alternatively, you could start tomorrow.

arrangement (n) - system, organization
arrange (v) - to put things in a system
Examples:

1. Please arrange the chairs so that everyone can see.
2. This is not a good arrangement. Let's do it a different way.

dominant (adj.) - strongest, most important
dominate (v) - to be the strongest, to control
Examples:

1. He is not strong. He is dominated by his wife.
2. English is the dominant second language in many countries.

intermingled (adj.) - mixed
intermingle (v) - to mix, to put together with no system
Examples:

1. At the party, people from different countries intermingled with each other.
2. He sang French songs intermingled with English ones.

mature (v) - to grow to maturity, to become ripe, to develop
mature (adj.) - old enough, ripe enough, (for fruit) ready to be eaten, sufficiently developed
maturity (n) - the age at which someone/something is fully developed
Examples:

1. When will these plants mature?
2. Only pick the mature fruits.
3. It will take 20 years for these trees to grow to maturity.

multiple (adj.) - many
multiply (v) - to increase many times
multiplication (n) - process of increasing many times
Examples:

1. He has been in hospital many times and had multiple operations.
2. Tests where you can choose from many possible answers are called multiple choice tests.

relay (n) - moving forward after being in the same position for some time
relay(v) - to move something forward
Examples:

1. Can you relay this information to the Director?
2. The computer will hold the information for 5 minutes and then relay it to another site.

row (n) - line of plants or other things/people
Examples:

1. Rice is usually planted in straight rows.
2. We sat in the third row of the meeting room.

short-term (adj.) - short time (as opposed to medium-term and long-term)
Examples:

1. What are the short-term objectives?
2. I think this will be successful over the short-term, but later we will have to think of another alternative.

simultaneously (adv.) - done at the same time
simultaneous (adj.) - at the same time
Examples:

1. Can you walk and read simultaneously?
2. At the sports competition, the men's and women's games will be held simultaneously.

within (prep.) - inside
Examples:

1. All the experiments were  conducted within the same farmer's fields.
2. Please try to finish this within 3 days.   

TECHNICAL VOCABULARY AND EXPRESSIONS:

 biennial - every two years, lasting for two years

bi-annual - two times a year


buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculenium) - plant grown for its triangular seeds. It is a native of central Asia but is now grown in both Europe and the United States as food for horses, cattle and poultry.  Also used as human food.


peas (Pisum) - leguminous plant with pinkish flowers and green seed pod. Its small, round seeds are used as a vegetable.


perennial - lasting a long time (in plants: living for more than two years)


soybean (Glycine max) - annual leguminous crop native to China and Japan. It is widely grown for its seeds which contain substantial protein and oil. It is also grown as forage and cover crop.


oats  (Avena sativa) - common cereal plant with edible seeds grown throughout the temperate zone. 
 

English for Agriculture unit 5 MONOCULTURE GRAMMAR AND ASSIGNMENT

GRAMMAR

This section explains the grammar that was introduced in the reading. Study the grammar carefully and complete the practice exercises to test your understanding. You may find it helpful to read the Reading again once you have practiced the grammar.

Modifiers, Noun Phrases and Verb Phrases

Remember the following sentences from the reading in this lesson:

1.      In monocultural farming systems, one or more crops per year may be grown.

2.      In both instances, crops are grown under monocultural practices.

3.      In monocultural systems, rotation is important for soil tilth.

These sentences all have the pattern:

(Modifiers) + Noun Phrase + Verb Phrase + (Noun Phrase) + (Modifier)

Modifiers	Noun Phrases	Verb Phrases
In monocultural farming systems,	one or more crops	may be grown
In both instances,	crops	are grown
for soil tilth	rotation	is important

Please note that:

• Sentences must start with a modifier (usually a time phrase or a place phrase) or a noun phrase.

Examples of place and noun phrase:

Place Phrase	Noun Phrase
In Thailand	Thailand
At the meeting	The meeting
All over the country	The country

• Sentences cannot start with a verb phrase.
• Modifiers are usually put at the start or end of sentences.
• Sentences must have a noun phrase and a verb phrase.
• The verb phrase must be after the noun phrase.
• When sentences start with a place phrase or time phrase (modifiers) these are followed by a comma (,). 

ASSIGNMENT

Write a short description of monocultural practices in your country (about 100 words). Try to use at least 10 terms introduced in this lesson. Make use of modifiers, noun phrases and verb phrases in constructing your sentences.  Write your answers in the comment box for comments and feedback.
The following questions may help you get started:




Do farmers in your country concentrate on one crop, or do they grow many types of crops?


Discuss any regional differences.


What do you think are the advantages and disadvantages of growing only one crop?


How does the present situation compare with the past?



What is monoculture?


Where is it practised?


How important is this agricultural system in your country?


What are some of the main advantages of monocultural practises?

English for Agriculture unit 5 MONOCULTURE READING

Monoculture

Monoculture is a cropping system in which fields of single crops are cultivated.
It is the predominant agricultural system in the temperate zone and is also practiced in large areas of the tropics.


In general, it is easier to mechanize planting, pest management and harvesting by planting one crop at a time.


The wheat belt of North America and the irrigated ricelands of Southeast Asia are good examples of monoculture.
In monocultural farming systems, one or more crops per year may be grown.
In North America, there is only one annual maize crop, while in the Philippines, there are often two rice crops.


In both instances, the crops are grown under monocultural practices.


Monoculture is a suitable system for mechanization since only one plant type is used.


Mechanization requires uniformity: the farmer with a hoe does not require straight and uniform rows, but the farmer using a tractor needs an unobstructed field with uniform soil condition.


In monocultural systems, it is important for soil tilth that crops be rotated.


Rotation is the practice of not growing the same crop in the same field every year.
With the exception of wetland rice,rotation should be used whenever possible.


Soil is a complex mixture of clay,silt, sand, and organic matter in various stages of decomposition.


By rotating crops, the farmer is able to improve soil structure, break insect and disease cycles, and improve fertility.


A legume, such as alfalfa, is a suitable crop for rotation.

English for Agriculture Unit 5 MONOCULTURE VOCABULARY

In this lesson you will study some of the key vocabulary we use when talking about monoculture. You will discuss some of the important issues involved and compare your information and ideas with those of your fellow students. At the end of the lesson you will write a short account of the monocultural practises in your country or region using some of the new vocabulary and structures you have studied in this lesson.


Objectives:
After completing this unit you should be able to:

• Define the key words introduced in this lesson and use them appropriately in agricultural writing.
• Use modifiers, noun phrases and verb phrases appropriately.
• Discuss issues related to monoculture in your country or region using the vocabulary and grammar that you have learned.

This section introduces the important words (key and technical vocabulary) that will be used in the lesson. You should be sure that you understand these terms before you continue to the Reading.

KEY VOCABULARY

annual (adj.) - every year
annually (adv.) - done or happening every year
Examples:

1. His salary is increased annually.
2. He receives an annual increase in his salary.

cycles (n) -  events that follow regularly
Examples:

1. We are born, we get old and we die – this is our life cycle.
2. Water moves from the land to the air and back to the land – this is the water cycle.

exception (n)  -  the different one, the only one that is different
Examples:

1. All the women in our village are beautiful. My wife is the only exception. (i.e. My wife is not beautiful)
2. With the exception of mathematics, all my son's grades were good. (i.e. His mathematics grade was not good)

hoe (n) - farm tool used for cutting soil and removing weeds
instances (n) - examples, cases, times
Examples:

1. I can think of many instances when my old computer did not work.
2. There are many instances of people recovering from cancer.

mechanization (n) - using machines
mechanize (v) - to use machines
mechanized (adj.)
mechanical (adj.)
Examples:

1. In Europe, most farms are highly mechanized.
2. Many Asian farmers are not wealthy enough to be able to mechanize their operations.

mud (n) - soft, wet soil
muddy (adj.)
predominant (adj.) - most important
predominantly (adv.)
Examples:

1. Maize is the predominant crop in many parts of America.
2. The population of Laos is predominantly Buddhist.

suitable (adj.) - good or correct for the situation, appropriate
suitably (adv.)
Examples:

1. This is a suitable book for young children.
2. Am I suitably dressed for the party?

uniform (adj.) - the same
uniformly (adv.)
uniformity (n)

1. These varieties do not produce similar yields – they are not uniform.
2. We conducted 5 experiments, but the results were not the same – they were not uniform.

unobstructed (adj.) - not obstructed, with nothing in the way
Examples:

1. My hotel room had an unobstructed view of the sea.
2. You can drive on now – the road is unobstructed.

zone (n)  - area
Examples:

1. Many countries have special industrial zones.
2. Some countries say they don't want nuclear bombs – they say they are nuclear-free zones. 

TECHNICAL VOCABULARY AND EXPRESSIONS

cropping system - the method and techniques of growing crops


pest management - the understanding and control of pests


wheat belt - a long, narrow area where wheat is grown


soil tilth - the physical condition of the topsoil. A fine tilth consists of small, loose soil particles. A coarse tilth consists mostly of large clods.


rotation (n) - a cropping system in which two or more crops are grown in the same field but at different times.
rotate (v)
rotated (adj.)


clay (n) - sticky soil that becomes hard when dry
clayey (adj.)


silt (n) - sand and mud carried by flowing water
siltation (process)


organic matter (n) - material containing remains of living things, e.g. plants, animals, insects


decompose (v) - to become bad or rotten after dying (also: decay, rot)
decomposed (adj.)
decomposing (adj.)
decomposition (process)


soil structure - the physical condition of soil, how it is constructed


temperate zone - area of the world which does not get very hot or very cold
tropics - regions with hot climates between latitudes 23^o north and 23^o south


fertile (adj.) - able to produce, rich in nutrients
fertility (n) - level of nutrients in the soil
fertilize (v) - to put nutrients into the soil
fertilizer (material)
Example:

1. Soils in that area are extremely fertile.( i.e. The soils are very good.  They can produce large amounts of crops.)

alfalfa (Medicago sativa) - also called 'lucerne'. A deep-rooted plant of the pea family.  Used extensively in the United States for fodder, pasture and as cover crop.

English for Agriculture unit 4 STAPLE CROPS reading

Staple Crops

source: Dimensions of Need- FAO, 1995 

Most people live on a diet of one or more of the following staples: rice, wheat, maize (corn), millet, sorghum, roots and tubers (potatoes, cassava, yams and taro), and animal products such as meat, milk, eggs, cheese and fish.


Of more than 50,000 edible plant species in the world, only a few contribute significantly to food supplies.
Just 15 crop plants provide 90 percent of the world’s food energy intake. Of these, just three - rice, wheat and maize, provide 60 percent of the world’s food energy intake.


Although there are over 10,000 species in the Granineae (cereal) family, few have been widely introduced into cultivation over the past 2,000 years.


Rice feeds almost half of humanity.


Per capita rice consumption has generally remained stable or risen slightly since the 1960s.


It has declined in recent years in many of the wealthier, rice-consuming countries such as Japan, the Republic of Korea and Thailand, because increased incomes have enabled people to eat a more varied diet.


A staple food is one that is eaten regularly, constitutes a major part of the diet and supplies a major portion of energy and nutrient needs.


A staple food does not meet a population’s total nutritional needs: a variety of foods is required.


Typically, staple crops are well adapted to the conditions in their source areas. For example, they may be tolerant of drought, pests or soils low in nutrients.

English for Agriculture unit 4 STAPLE CROPS grammar

Compound Sentences

using although / though / even though

Remember this sentence from the reading in this lesson:
Although there are thousands of cereal types, only a few are cultivated.
This is an example of a compound sentence.  This sentence could be written as two sentences using 'However,' to start the second sentence, like this:
There are thousands of cereal types.  However, only a few are cultivated.
Compound sentences contain two verbs and sometimes two subjects.  They express two ideas or points.
If we want to make a compound sentence, we use but or although.

• although is similar to but
• although can be used at the start of sentences or between phrases.
• but should not be used at the start of sentences.

Examples:

1. There are thousands of cereal types, but only a few are cultivated.
2. There are thousands of cereal types, although only a few are cultivated.
3. Although there are thousands of cereal types, only a few are cultivated.

Please note:

• the position of the comma (,)
• although can be replaced with though or even though.

To illustrate, Example 2 can also be written as follows:

There are thousands of cereal types, though only a few are cultivated.

using such as / for example

Look at these sentences taken from the reading in this lesson:

1. Many people eat animal products such as meat, milk, eggs and fish.
2. Rice consumption has declined in wealthier countries such as Japan, the Republic of Korea and Thailand.

Please note that:

• such as has the same meaning as for example, including and like.
• such as and including have the same usage
• like is more common in spoken English
• for example is usually placed between a comma and a colon (:) .

To illustrate,

Many people eat animal, for example: meat, milk, eggs and fish.

Rice comsumption has declined in wealthier countries, for example: Japan, the Republic of Korea and Thailand.

• such as and for example introduce a partial account - not a complete one.  In the above examples, there are more animal products than the 4 mentioned, and there are more wealthier rice-consuming countries than the 3 mentioned.

To illustrate,

ASEAN is comprised of many countries, such as Thailand, Malaysia and Indonesia. (partial account)

ASEAN is comprised of 10 countries.  These are Indonesia, Thailand, Malaysia, Brunei, Singapore, the Philippines, Vietnam, Laos, Myanmar and Cambodia. (complete list)

• we cannot use such as, including or for example when we provide the complete list. 

English for Agriculture unit 4 STAPLE CROPS vocabulary

balanced (adj.) - in equal amounts, in correct amounts
balance (v) - to keep steady, to keep safe
balance (n) - equal weight
Examples:

1. We should preserve the balance of nature.
2. This newspaper gives us a balanced account of the news.

contribute (v) - to give a part of the whole
contribution (n)
Examples:

1. Carbon dioxide contributes to global warming.
2. Bill Gates gave a large contribution of $3 billion to help computer education.

creature (n) - animal, including people, birds, fish, insects, etc.
decline (v) - to reduce, to fall, to decrease
decline(n)
Examples:

1. In some countries, the birth rate is now declining.
2. There has been a decline in the number of people using the library.

diet (n) - the food we usually eat
diet (v) - to eat special food for health reasons
Examples:

1. Many Europeans do not eat a healthy diet.
2. Some animals live on a diet of leaves.

disaster (n) - very serious accident affecting many people
disastrous (adj.)
Examples:

1. The effects of global warming could be disastrous.
2. Bangladesh suffers many natural disasters each year.

drought (n) - situation of no rain for a long time
Examples:

1. Drought is one kind of natural disaster.
2. Many areas are affected by drought.

edible (adj.) - can be eaten, good enough to eat
Examples:

1. Are these mushrooms edible?
2. Not all plants are edible.

enable (v) - make possible
Examples:

1. The new equipment will enable us to improve our work.
2. Modern transport enables us to travel very quickly.

humanity (n) - all the people in the world
Examples:

1. This is a problem for humanity (i.e. all people)
2. Humanity has produced many varied societies.

intake (n) - consumption, what is taken in
Examples:

1. You should reduce your intake of alcohol!
2. In some areas, school intake is declining. (i.e. fewer children are going to school)

meet (v) - supply enough
Examples:

1. This work is not good enough! It does not meet my   requirements.
2. We should have enough food to meet our daily needs.

nutritional (adj.) -  high in nutrients
nutrition (n) - process of giving nutrients
nutrients (n) - substances or food which allow plants and animals to live
Examples:

1. Plants get their nutrients from the soil.
2. This food is not very good. It is not very nutritional.
3. Good nutrition is essential for good health.

per capita (adj.) - per person, for one person
Examples:

1. In some countries, per capita income is declining.
2. Per capita consumption of food increases in most years.

regularly (adv.) - happening at times which are the same distance apart
regular (adj.) - always the same

1. I am a regular customer of that shop.
2. You should practice your English regularly.

risen (v) -(rise-rose-risen), to come up
rise (n) - an increase
Examples:

1. The sun rises in the east.
2. The number of accidents has risen recently.

significantly (adv.) - a lot, substantially, importantly
significant (adj.) - large, substantial, important
Examples:

1. There has been a significant improvement recently.
2. Incomes have risen significantly. (i.e. risen a lot)

slightly (adv.)
slight (adj.) - a little
Examples:

1. There has only been a slight improvement. (i.e. a little improvement)
2. These ones are slightly better than those ones.

source (n) - place where something comes from
Examples:

1. The source of the Mekong River is in Tibet.
2. What was the source of this information? (i.e. Where did it come from?)

stable (adj.) - staying the same, not going up or down
stability (n)
stabilize (v)
Examples:

1. Incomes have not increased or decreased this year – they have remained stable.
2. The doctors said his condition has now stabilized.

typically (adv.) - usually, most commonly
typical (adj.) - usual, common
Examples:

1. He is a typical man – always talking about sports!
2. He greeted me with typical Asian friendliness.

well-adapted (adj.) - changed to become comfortable or suitable
Examples:

1. He found living in a foreign country difficult at first, but he is well-adapted now.
2. Most animals are well-adapted to their environment.

wealthy (adj.) - rich, having a lot of money or resources
wealth (n)
Examples:

1. When he was young, he was very poor, but he became wealthy in later life.
2. The wealth of many poor countries is in their natural resources.

widely (adv.) - happening over a large area
wide (adj.)
Examples:

1. These varieties are widely used in our country.
2. Technical words are not widely understood.

TECHNICAL VOCABULARY  





staple (n) - the main crop produced or consumed in a country
Example:

1. Rice is the staple food in most Asian countries.

wheat (Triticum sativum) - cereal grass with spikes filled with seeds. The seeds are used to make flour (for bread), cereals, etc.  Next to rice, it is the world's most widely used grain.
maize (Zea mays) - the native corn plant of America, cultivated for its food, producing yellow ears.
corn - any plant producing edible grains but in America meaning 'maize' and in England meaning 'wheat'
millet (Panicum miliaceum) - cereal grass. Its small grains are used for food in Europe and Asia. Also used for hay iin the United States and Europe.
sorghum (Sorghum vulgare) - type of grass known by the general name 'millet'.  The grasses are tall with edible stems and are found in the warmer parts of Europe, Asia and America.
roots - the parts of plants which keep them in the soil and absorb water and nutrients from the soil
tuber - short, thick part of an underground stem which stores food and produces buds from which new plants will grow
cassava (Manihot utillssima) - tropical plant producing large thick roots used in making tapioca and bread. Also called 'manioc'.
taro (Colocasia esculents) - tropical plant of the arum family, cultivated for its starchy, edible tuberous root.
tolerant of  - able to exist in difficult conditions without damage
Example:

1. These plants are tolerant of cold weather. (same asThese plants are not damaged by cold weather.)

yam (Dioscorea alata) - often referred to as 'sweet potato'. Grows in tropical climates and is a valuable food source.